At the start of the nineteenth century there was little in the way of an Estonian national consciousness. Even those Estonians who had moved from the countryside to the towns had adopted German language and lifestyles in order to secure economic advancement. However, an increasing number of people were becoming interested in Estonian language and folklore.

In 1857 the Võru doctor Friedrich Reinhold Kreuzwald published a Neo-folk epic entitled Kalevipoeg (“Son of Kalev”) by piecing together Estonian folklore fragments. Johann Voldemar Jannsen founded the first Estonian newspaper, Postimees, in the same year. It was Jannsen who organised the first All-Estonian Song Festival in Tartu in 1869.

Continuing Russian and German dominance caused increased resentment among the growing Estonian middle classes, who began to organise themselves politically. In 1904 Estonian parties won a majority in Tallinn municipal elections. Most Estonians enthusiastically supported the Anti-Tsarist Revolution of 1905, hoping it would lead to emancipatory changes. The revolution and its aftermath turned out to be a disappointment, but Estonian patriotic aspirations had been awakened, and would only grow in the years to come.